"Perhaps no other group of vertebrates, except possibly the fishes, has been as neglected osteologically as have the birds." -Stanley John Olsen
Unlike mammal bones, there are no readily available key guide books for bird bone identification. Online databases of skeletal specimen often have mammalian specimen far out number avian. So, if you're interested in identifying (IDing) bird skeletal remains, where do you go?
Since there aren't many key guides, and certainly none easily accessible, this means one of the most practical approaches would be through comparative osteology, or simply put, by comparing bones until you find a match. This is much more difficult than it sounds, one reason being, as I stated earlier, online sources for avian skeletal remains are limited. They do, however, exist, and there are some fantastic ones.
I will provide both an individual list of bird bone resources and my "master list" from my iNaturalist journal. The individual list is in alphabetical order.
And, although there is a deficiency of key guide books for bird bone identification, books on avian osteology do exist, and will be discussed below the reference links. Below that will be other assorted sources relevant to avian osteology.
As a final note, if you found a bird bone and just want it to get identified without having to sludge through all this, feel free to ask for help in the comments. I wouldn't write all this if I didn't really love identifying bird bones.
iNaturalist journal master list, Bird Osteology Quick Links:
https://www.inaturalist.org/journal/lizardking/26649-bird-osteology-quick-linksNot actually quick. An ever growing list of resources and references. Sorted primarily by taxonomic order. There will be links to sites I listed below, scientific papers, images from my own personal collection, and other odds and ends to try and build as much of a comprehensive reference list as possible.
Individual Sources:
Alfred Denny Museum of Zoology
Some passerine and landfowl skulls.
Aves 3D
3D models and some photographs of bird bones from various species.
BoneClones
A store, but helpful for references. Sells reproductions of bones. It has a decent amount of bird skulls and a few articulated skeletons. The bird skulls all have sclerotic eye rings (bony structure in the eye) which is something a lot of real specimen often lack, as they are delicate bones and fickle to work with.
boneID.net
Limited in bird references, but has a variety of different views, and focuses on post-cranial (all skeletal elements after the skull, so all non-skull bones) elements as well as skulls.
Some articulated bird skeletons. Articulated skeletons are always difficult to use when studying individual anatomical elements because individual bones will be obscured and placed in unfavorable angles to showcase the skeleton as a whole. However, this has many skeletons I've been pressed for references on; hummingbirds (ruby-throated hummingbird), rails (sora) and parrots (lovebird).
Denver Zoo Biofacts
Primarily bird skulls, with some post-cranial elements. I do have concerns about the accuracy, as I have sent an email about BB540, "HAWK SKULL (UNKNOWN)", which is an owl skull, likely a Great Horned Owl, but still mislabeled.
Jake's Bones
Primarily focuses on mammal skulls, but has some really neat bird bones. Also helpful for anyone who wants to get into cleaning and collecting bones.
Royal BC Museum's Avian Osteology
Limited, but has its uses. Has photo references of various birds of prey (accipitriformes, falcons, and owls) skulls and limb bones.
It is searchable by length.
shearwater.nl
Skulls Unlimited
Another store. Sells replicas, but primarily focuses on real bone.
Runs the Museum of Osteology, which I hope opens itself to the virtual
world one day so anyone can visit it.
If anyone knows other good resources, please let me know in the comments.
Why more trackers, naturalists, birders, ornithologists, those interested more in zoology than archaeology, do not have a larger demand for bird bone identification, I have no idea.
This means most all books and guides with a primary focus on avian skeletal remains do not focus on using elements that decay quickly like feathers and bill sheaths for identification, and that they are far heftier and academic than many casual mammal bone guides which can be brought on a hike or used easily by an amateur.
The Bird Building Book, Lee Post.
Personally purchased. While not directly a guide to IDing what bird a bone came from and more if the bone came from a bird or another vertebrate, I consider this book essential to all I've learned and highly recommend it. As the name implies, it instructs how to clean and articulate bird skeletons in the first half of the manual. The second half shows various examples of most avian skeletal elements, with terminology for the features of the bones and various examples from different species. Terminology is the back bone for effectively understanding how to compare bones, and it becomes a lot easier to identify differences in features when you can actually name what the feature is. It's primarily North American based, but since it's mostly about features and not IDing specific species that shouldn't be a huge issue. Since the book covers bone cleaning techniques it'll be of particular interest for those interested in collecting. In general this book was a real enjoyable, educational, and fun read. Illustrated guide, beginner friendly.
Osteology for the Archaeologist, Stanley John Olsen.
Personally purchased. The first half of it is about Mammoth and Mastodon bones. As the title suggests, this is geared towards zooarchaeology. The bird part of the book (which is the majority) is more directly a guide to IDing what bird species the bone belongs to. However, it intends to be more representative than comprehensive. Birds from various families are selected as guides to ID the remains to a broader grouping, with the assumption a species level identification can be ascertained through comparison with specimen in a larger university collection. Since like many others I'm not working for any university or museum, this guide has inherent limitations. It is focused exclusively on North American birds, but since it's representative it could be useful to ID birds from other continents to family, and then references can be used to ascertain species from there. It focuses on the skull, sternum, pelvis, femur, tibiotarsus, tarsometatars, humerus, carpometacarpus, ulna, and coracoid, and has two views of every bone. It lacks any tubenoses.
I highly recommend this book. It has more terminology than The Bird Building Book and really helps build a more comprehensive understanding of comparative osteology. I found a free PDF of it here, and loved it so much that I bought a physical copy. Illustrated guide, more technical and academic than The Bird Building Book.
Denver Zoo Biofacts
Primarily bird skulls, with some post-cranial elements. I do have concerns about the accuracy, as I have sent an email about BB540, "HAWK SKULL (UNKNOWN)", which is an owl skull, likely a Great Horned Owl, but still mislabeled.
post-cranial elements, but it treats them as equal with skulls. It is also consistent
(with some exception) in showing six different views of each bone.
Different views can be essential for IDing.
(with some exception) in showing six different views of each bone.
Different views can be essential for IDing.
Jake's Bones
Primarily focuses on mammal skulls, but has some really neat bird bones. Also helpful for anyone who wants to get into cleaning and collecting bones.
Amazing photographs of bird bones. Skulls and many post-cranial elements, with a couple of different views. This source has been tremendously helpful.
Limited, but has its uses. Has photo references of various birds of prey (accipitriformes, falcons, and owls) skulls and limb bones.
It is searchable by length.
shearwater.nl
Skeletal
elements of seabirds. Has references for Procellariiformes (Tubenoses;
albatross, petrels, shearwaters), Suliformes (Gannets, boobies, cormorants, shags),
Tropicbirds, Pelicans, Penguins, and Charadriiformes (gulls, terns, noodies,
alcids, etc.). Mostly skulls, but sternums, pelvises, and other post-cranial
elements can be found on the site, in addition to relevant research and
information. Possibly the best source on the web for seabird skulls.
skullsite.com
The holy grail of bird skulls. I have run into a few skulls
on
shearwater and not skullsite, but skullsite is not restricted to only one subset of birds. This is the best place on the web for bird skull references. Lacks post-cranial elements, the articulated skeletons aren't working and articulated skeletons are not convenient for comparative osteology, but it is called "skullsite" for a reason. The skulls are grouped by taxonomic order, but there is also a search feature where you can look at skulls within a certain size range, beak shape, or key word.
shearwater and not skullsite, but skullsite is not restricted to only one subset of birds. This is the best place on the web for bird skull references. Lacks post-cranial elements, the articulated skeletons aren't working and articulated skeletons are not convenient for comparative osteology, but it is called "skullsite" for a reason. The skulls are grouped by taxonomic order, but there is also a search feature where you can look at skulls within a certain size range, beak shape, or key word.
Skulls Unlimited
Another store. Sells replicas, but primarily focuses on real bone.
Runs the Museum of Osteology, which I hope opens itself to the virtual
world one day so anyone can visit it.
specimen. Has skulls and post-cranial elements, as well as skins and histological records.
The Bone Room
Another store. Good for references, and also the most affordable of the
three stores I linked to if you want to start building up your own collection.
The Bone Room
Another store. Good for references, and also the most affordable of the
three stores I linked to if you want to start building up your own collection.
Wills' Skull Page
Six skulls, a Flamingo sp., Red-throated Diver, Northern Fulmar, Northern Gannet, Grey Heron, and Common Raven.
Six skulls, a Flamingo sp., Red-throated Diver, Northern Fulmar, Northern Gannet, Grey Heron, and Common Raven.
Zygoma
Blog of a natural history museum curator, filled with interesting bones from all vertebrate classes. Posts a lot of unique avian skeletal elements.
Blog of a natural history museum curator, filled with interesting bones from all vertebrate classes. Posts a lot of unique avian skeletal elements.
If anyone knows other good resources, please let me know in the comments.
Books
Across the board, all books I can find with a specific focus on avian osteology are geared towards zooarchaeology.Why more trackers, naturalists, birders, ornithologists, those interested more in zoology than archaeology, do not have a larger demand for bird bone identification, I have no idea.
This means most all books and guides with a primary focus on avian skeletal remains do not focus on using elements that decay quickly like feathers and bill sheaths for identification, and that they are far heftier and academic than many casual mammal bone guides which can be brought on a hike or used easily by an amateur.
The Bird Building Book, Lee Post.
Personally purchased. While not directly a guide to IDing what bird a bone came from and more if the bone came from a bird or another vertebrate, I consider this book essential to all I've learned and highly recommend it. As the name implies, it instructs how to clean and articulate bird skeletons in the first half of the manual. The second half shows various examples of most avian skeletal elements, with terminology for the features of the bones and various examples from different species. Terminology is the back bone for effectively understanding how to compare bones, and it becomes a lot easier to identify differences in features when you can actually name what the feature is. It's primarily North American based, but since it's mostly about features and not IDing specific species that shouldn't be a huge issue. Since the book covers bone cleaning techniques it'll be of particular interest for those interested in collecting. In general this book was a real enjoyable, educational, and fun read. Illustrated guide, beginner friendly.
Osteology for the Archaeologist, Stanley John Olsen.
Personally purchased. The first half of it is about Mammoth and Mastodon bones. As the title suggests, this is geared towards zooarchaeology. The bird part of the book (which is the majority) is more directly a guide to IDing what bird species the bone belongs to. However, it intends to be more representative than comprehensive. Birds from various families are selected as guides to ID the remains to a broader grouping, with the assumption a species level identification can be ascertained through comparison with specimen in a larger university collection. Since like many others I'm not working for any university or museum, this guide has inherent limitations. It is focused exclusively on North American birds, but since it's representative it could be useful to ID birds from other continents to family, and then references can be used to ascertain species from there. It focuses on the skull, sternum, pelvis, femur, tibiotarsus, tarsometatars, humerus, carpometacarpus, ulna, and coracoid, and has two views of every bone. It lacks any tubenoses.
I highly recommend this book. It has more terminology than The Bird Building Book and really helps build a more comprehensive understanding of comparative osteology. I found a free PDF of it here, and loved it so much that I bought a physical copy. Illustrated guide, more technical and academic than The Bird Building Book.
Osteology of birds, Robert Wilson Shufeldt.
The first avian osteology book I discovered, it's over 100 years old and not readily available to purchase. I never bothered to read the whole thing word for word, I hate online books, but some of the photographic plates have proven to be useful. Has illustrations and photographs. Technical and academic.
This book does apparently have a key guide in addition to comparative resources and a walk through of sexual dimorphism in turkey skeletons, but from what I can tell is severely limited. It is focused on North America, and seems to primarily focus on landfowl. It is intended for zooarchaeology, and seems to also assume the reader has access to a university or museum worth of specimen for comparison. I have never seen a copy for much less than 150 US dollars, and most seem to run for about twice that. I don't want to drop that kind of money on something that I don't know for sure would be helpful, so I can't personally recommend it one way or the other.
The Inner Bird: Anatomy and Evolution By Gary W. Kaiser
Has some illustrations of bird bones. It's primary focus is not on skeletal anatomy, let alone identification of skeletal elements, and the content therefore seems of limited help. I don't have it so I can't personally recommend it one way or the other, but it doesn't seem particularly helpful for bird bone IDing, though could be useful as a supplement.
The Inner Bird: Anatomy and Evolution By Gary W. Kaiser
Has some illustrations of bird bones. It's primary focus is not on skeletal anatomy, let alone identification of skeletal elements, and the content therefore seems of limited help. I don't have it so I can't personally recommend it one way or the other, but it doesn't seem particularly helpful for bird bone IDing, though could be useful as a supplement.
Beautiful illustrations of bird anatomy, lots of articulated skeletons but also has muscular systems. This is fundamentally an anatomy book, not an osteology book, and therefore would (I assume) be of limited use for avian bone IDing. Articulated skeletons are not convenient for comparative osteology as a lot of important features are obscured or out of view. That said, if I ever have a spare $200, I'd probably buy it. But I don't, so I can't personally recommend it one way or the other.
Only recently found this one, seems to be a key guide for landfowl, waterfowl, and pigeon/dove bones in Europe. Domestic birds were selected because this is, again, an archaeology guide book and those are the most common in archaeological sites. I don't have it, so I can't recommend it one way or the other.
Bird Tracks & Sign--A Guide to North American Species, Mark Elbroch, Eleanor Marks, C. Diane Boretos.
I don't personally have, but I might get it. It's not primarily focused on bird bone IDing, but from what I seen it has a few skulls. It also covers some feather IDing, which is helpful for bone identification as well. Feather remains can help skeletal ID and in some cases can be more precise than osteology alone. I don't personally have it though, so I can't really recommend it one way or the other.
Potentially any book about birds.
If you're as into unlocking the mysteries of bird bones as I am, you should always keep a look out for where you might find references. My local library has Cormorants, Darters, and Pelicans of the World, by Paul A. Johnsgard, which by no means primarily focuses on skeletal anatomy but still has some illustrations of sternums and pelvises. Until coming across Osteology for the Archaeologist, this was the best anhinga reference I had. Still don't have a photograph of one, but I now have illustrations from three different sources (those two books and some from a paper).
I also found some book recommendations on the website for the book Identifying and Interpreting Animal Bones that might be worth checking into, including the book itself. I've already discussed two of the recommended books, and the others seem a bit limited but for the sake of comprehensiveness I definitely feel they're all worth sharing.
Potentially any book about birds.
If you're as into unlocking the mysteries of bird bones as I am, you should always keep a look out for where you might find references. My local library has Cormorants, Darters, and Pelicans of the World, by Paul A. Johnsgard, which by no means primarily focuses on skeletal anatomy but still has some illustrations of sternums and pelvises. Until coming across Osteology for the Archaeologist, this was the best anhinga reference I had. Still don't have a photograph of one, but I now have illustrations from three different sources (those two books and some from a paper).
I also found some book recommendations on the website for the book Identifying and Interpreting Animal Bones that might be worth checking into, including the book itself. I've already discussed two of the recommended books, and the others seem a bit limited but for the sake of comprehensiveness I definitely feel they're all worth sharing.
If anyone reading this has any more book suggestions, please feel free to comment, I'm always looking for more.
Other Sources
A PDF with illustrations of skeletal elements across different heron species.
A PDF comprehensive jargon guide. Not directly for identification, but has illustrations of different species to show the names for different features of bones. It's a challenging academic and technical read, and uses Latin terms instead of the English terminology you'll find in The Bird Building Book or Osteology for the Archaeologist, but if you're serious about terminology this is probably the most comprehensive source of its kind.
A Manual for the Identification of Bird Bones from Archaeological Sites, Alan Cohen, Dale Serjeantson.
An illustrated guide for comparative osteology of archaeological remains much like Olsen's Osteology for the Archaeologist but less technical and comprehensive. Still pretty handy. This seems to be a book, but I can't find anywhere to actually purchase it.
A Manual for the Identification of Bird Bones from Archaeological Sites, Alan Cohen, Dale Serjeantson.
An illustrated guide for comparative osteology of archaeological remains much like Olsen's Osteology for the Archaeologist but less technical and comprehensive. Still pretty handy. This seems to be a book, but I can't find anywhere to actually purchase it.
Any other sources, as well as any questions, requests for identification help, or other remarks, are welcomed in the comments.
